Aggregate Demand And The Level Of Economic Activity Economics Essay

Aggregate Demand And The Level Of Economic Activity Economics Essay Introduction Collection of revenue and the use of government expenditure which affect the economy is termed as fiscal policy. Fiscal policy can be distinguished with the major sort of macroeconomic policy, monetary policy, which stabilizes the economy by controlling rate of interest and supply of money. Two major objectives of fiscal policy are taxation and expenditure of government Transforming in the level , composition of taxation and government expenditure can force on the following variables in an economy : Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity; The pattern of resource allocation; The distribution of income. Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity: At a given time the price level and the total demand for goods and services in an economy(Y) is called aggregate demand (AD) . [1]. It is the quantity of goods and services in an economy that will be obtained at all probable price levels.[2] When inventory levels are static the demand for the gross domestic product of an economy is termed as aggregate demand. It is also called effective demand although at other times this term is differentiated. It is often quoted that the aggregate demand curve is downward sloping as at lower price levels a larger amount is demanded. Components of Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity: An aggregate demand curve is the summation of individual demand curves for different sectors of the economy. The aggregate demand is generally expressed as a linear sum of four divisible demand sources.[3] where is consumption (may also be known as consumer spending) = ac + bc(Y à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ T), is Investment, is Government spending, is Net export, is total exports, and is total imports = am + bm(Y à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ T). The pattern of resource allocation: Resource allocation is generally used to allot the resource available in an economy in an economic way. How limited resources are allocated among producers, and how limited goods and services are distributed among consumers , this study takes into observation the accounting cost, economic cost, opportunity cost, and other costs of resources and goods and services. Allotment of resources is a vital idea in economics and is related with economic effectiveness and maximization of utility. The distribution of income: Amongst the population of a nation how the nations total economy is allocated is termed as income distribution. It has always been a major concern of economic policy and economic theory. The allocation of income between the vital factors of production, land, labor and capital are considered to express income distribution. Fiscal policy is a vital factor for the economic development of a country. In Bangladesh fiscal policy consists of activities, which the country carries out to attain and utilize resources to afford services while ensuring optimal efficiency of the economic units. This policy controls the behavior of economic forces throughout the public finance. The main factors to attain these goals are variation in public expenditure, variation in public revenue, and management of public debt. These are revealed in the financial planning operations of the government, set up and executed on year-on-year basis. Literature Review For the overall economic development of a country fiscal policy and its management exert greater influence on economic activity. To boost up an economic infrastructure many research and study have been done by economists and policymakers. In this section literature abounds on the effectiveness and importance of fiscal policy in developed and developing countries of the world. Developing countries are facing dual challenges while undertaking fiscal adjustment policies. One arises from the increasing demand for public expenditures for Infrastructure and social sector investment, and the other arises from the lack of capacity to raise revenue from domestic sources to finance the increased expenditure, primarily due to narrow tax base. To boost competitive capacity of the country in a rapidly globalizing world, the governments of developing countries have to invest a large portion of their revenue in building physical infrastructures. In addition, the low income developing countries also need to spend a major portion of their development expenditures in providing social services to the poor such as health, education etc. On the other hand, as Khattry (2003: 402) pointed out, the structural characteristics of low income countries, combined with prevalence of unsophisticated tax administration limit their ability to raise taxes from domestic sources, namely income and domestic indirect taxes. Also, the existence of a large informal sector and the underground economy constrains the governments capacity for revenue growth. Another source of fiscal problem arises with the process of trade liberalization that requires reduction of taxes on international trade together with the elimination of quantitative restrictions and other forms of trade barriers. Therefore countries have to resort to domestic sources to compensate the revenue loss emanating from trade liberalization. As the scope of domestic sources of revenue is limited due to the narrow tax base and structural constraints in the low income countries, this may lead to a vulnerable fiscal position. In principle, a well functioning VAT system on import combined with broad based low tariffs) can recoup some of the revenue loss due to the greater inflow of imports that eventually follows trade liberalization. National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (NSAPR) of Bangladesh (2005) recognizes that, as government revenue is heavily dependent on trade taxes, and tariff liberalization typically results in tariff revenue loss, alternative sources of revenue must be ensured in order to prevent a sudden rise in budget deficit (which is already high). In order to recoup revenue losses due to tariff liberalization government is trying to increase revenue from direct taxes. It is also envisaged that indirect taxes such as VAT and supplementary duty are applied uniformly on both domestic production and imports, it would both reduce anti-export bias and increase government revenue by widening the tax-net (NSAPR, 2005, p.86). Trade liberalization may thus lead to a fiscal squeeze as a result of re duced revenue and simultaneous increase in expenditure. According to Khattry (2003) fiscal squeeze led some countries to reduce expenditure on physical capital, while that on social services (e.g. health and education) has been financed by acquiring additional debt. However, it has been empirically substantiated that government capital expenditure plays an important role in enhancing economic growth. Bose et al (2003) investigated a panel of thirty developing countries over the decades of 1970s and 1980s, and found that, the share of government capital expenditure in GDP is positively and significantly correlated with economic growth though current expenditure is insignificant. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between revenue and expenditure and its implication for managing the budget deficit. In order to do this a three variable model is formulated comprising government expenditure, revenue and GDP. Firstly, existence of a long-run relationship among these three variables is tested by using Johansen (1991, 1995) co integration approach. Granger causality test is applied on the corresponding vector error correction model to examine short-run causal relationship between the variables The goal of fiscal policy is to enhance economic growth and employment and to bring stability in economic outcome variables such as the real GDP growth rate. Under the above circumstances, the nature and objectives of fiscal policy may differ with the level of development of the countries. Long run outcome of expansionary fiscal policy depends on the nature of distribution of public resources as the same amount of public money can generate different growth pay-offs in different sectors, and the overall growth of the economy depends on the combined growth of these sectors When the government takes expansionary fiscal policy (expenditure surpassing revenue) either through increasing expenditure or reducing taxes or both, it has to borrow from internal and external sources to finance the deficit. The concept of deficit budget was popularized by Keynes and his followers -the principal argument is that government can boost up economic growth by increasing government expenditures in the short run. Again the government has to shrink its expenditures during the time of growth as excessive aggregate demand can generate inflation. In contrary to the above theory some economists argue that budget deficit negatively affects economic growth According to the advocates of the latter view, lowering budget deficit reduces interest rate thereby increasing investment, which in turn enhances economic growth The risk of expansionary fiscal policy is that, it leads to public debt growth, where it is envisaged that the growth of the economy will be significant enough in the subsequent periods so that the government will have a larger revenue base to finance its enhanced debt obligations. However, failure to generate enough economic growth may force the government into a deficit trap. Therefore the government has to borrow again to finance its deficit -this time may be in greater volume due to increase in the expenditure for repaying principal and interest of previous periods deb t even if the magnitude of public sector activities remains unaltered. There is also a risk that, government borrowing from domestic sources may crowd out private investment by raising the rate of interest. Constraining private investment in this fashion and expending the same amount of money in less productive sectors of the economy can negatively affect overall growth of the economy. As mentioned by Carneiro et al (2004, p.9), if economic agents are non Recording due to credit constraints and overlapping generation, public deficit can have a negative impact on growth as public deficits can hamper growth by competing with private physical capital for individual savings. Conversely, in developing countries public investment can be influential to crowd in private investment as shown by Binswanger et al (1993); infrastructure accessibility and the rural banks are crucial factors for increasing private investment in agriculture, which requires substantial government intervention in fac ilitating private investment. Given excess liquidity in the system (as it is the case in Bangladesh), in spite of significant public borrowing from the banking system over the last 4-6 months, private credit actually proceeded at its usual pace. This however need not be true all the time. Bangladeshs fiscal policy is closely linked to its monetary policy because public budget deficits are mainly financed by increases in money supply. Theoretically, expansionary fiscal policy would generate an increased supply of high-powered money in the face of frequent adjustment in the budget deficit and can provoke price spiral if there is no excess capacity in the economy (Friedman 1956; Friedman and Kuttner 1992). However, increasing government borrowing from central bank is seen as highly inflationary in the case of Bangladesh. But it should be noted that under the situation of chronic slow down of general demand (i.e. a general glut in the economy) higher public expenditure can create higher economic activity by protecting the falling trend in demand which is financed by increased public borrowing (Kiguel 1989). However, there is a general consensus among economists and policy-makers that regulating the growth of money stock is necessary to achieve a fairy stable price level a nd full employment of an economy (Sims 1972) Blanchard and Perotti (2002) use information about the elasticity of fiscal variables to identify the automatic response of fiscal policy, and find that expansionary fiscal shocks increase output, have a positive effect on private consumption, and a negative impact on private investment. More recently, using sign restrictions on the impulse-response functions and identifying the unexpected variation in government spending by a positive response of expenditure for up to four quarters after the shock, Mountford and Uhlig(2005) find a negative effect in residential and non-residential investment Similar studies applied to other countries are relatively scarce, largely due to the limited availability of quarterly public finance data, and, in addition, do not provide a consensual view. Perotti (2004) investigates the effects of fiscal policy in Australia Canada, Germany and the U.K., and finds a relatively large positive effect on private consumption and no response of private investment. Biau and Girard (2005) find a cumulative multiplier of government spending larger than one, and positive reactions of private consumption and private investment in France. De Castro and Hernà ¡ndez de Cos2006) use data for Spain and show that, while there is a positive relationship between government expenditure and output in the short-term, in the medium and long-term expansionary spending shocks only lead to higher inflation and lower output. Heppke- Falk et al. (2006) use cash data for Germany, and find that a positive shock in government spending increases output and private consumption, although the effect is relatively small. Giordano et al. (2007) show that, in Italy, government expenditure has positive and persistent effects on output and on private consumption. Analysis The Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, state of southern Asia, in the northeastern portion of the Indian subcontinent, edged on the north, east and west by India, on the southeast by Burma (Myanmar), and on the south by the Bay of Bengal. The total area of the country is 147,570 sq km with a population of 126 million. It lies roughly between 20 °34 and 26 °36 North latitude and between 88 °01 and 92 °41 east longitude. The capital and leading city of Bangladesh is Dhaka. The economy of Bangladesh is comprised by that of a developing country. Its per capita income in 2008 was est. US$1,500 (adjusted by purchasing power parity) significantly lower than India, Pakistan, both which are also lesser than the world average of $10,497. According to the gradation by the International Monetary Fund, Bangladesh ranked as the 48th largest economy in the world in 2008, with a gross domestic product of US$224.889 billion. The economy has grown at the rate of 6-7% p.a. over the past few years. More than half of the GDP belongs to the service sector; nearly half of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector, with RMG, fish, vegetables, leather and leather goods, ceramics, rice as other essential produce. The aim of the governments fiscal management is striking a weighing balance between government revenue and expenditure. One more foremost goal is to uphold shortage in the existing budget as much as reasonable for advanced investment in the public division. As a result of cautious fiscal policy and strengthening of fiscal management, overall fiscal deficiency through the current decade remained unchanged. To formulate and execute sound fiscal policy is one of the most significant functions of the government. It puts importance on sustaining macroeconomic constancy through balancing public expenditure management. There is no substitute to sound fiscal management in overall economic governance as a fair public income and expenditure management that assures private sector institutions and individuals a steady macroeconomic background. The vital source of government revenue is tax. Public revenue mainly consists of direct and indirect taxes which accounted for more than 80 percent of total government revenue. The government collects the rest of the public revenue from different non-tax collection such as fee, charge, toll etc. The level of revenue assortment is a vital indicator to establish the step of economic development of a country. The economy of a country becomes more stable if it collects large amount of revenue. In this section we are going to analyze the fiscal condition of Bangladesh during the time period from FY-1991 to FY-2008.During these years Prudent fiscal management emerged as a most important challenge facing the country. The Governments revenue mobilization efforts developed remarkably in the early 1990s following the launch of some major fiscal reforms, mainly introduction of the value-added tax (VAT) in 1991.The VAT provided greater coverage and raised rates than the taxes that it restored (mostly excise duty). The revenue tax to GDP ratio rose from 5.9 percent in FY1991 to 7.3 percent in FY1993, but since then, the proportion has remained steady at about 7 percent. A stagnant tax to GDP ratio reveals lack of improvement in broadening the tax net and in improving the tax management system; in brief, the effectiveness of tax assortment remains fragile and futile. Specifically, the Government has failed to widen the coverage of direct taxes, broaden VAT coverage to high-revenue-y ielding trades and services, develop the implementation of import taxes, and bolster tax government. Conversely, nontax revenues are relatively small (a bit less than 2 percent of GDP), and they also festered over much of the 1990s. As consequence, since FY1993, the entire revenue to GDP ratio has altered around 9 percent, making revenue collection of Bangladesh effort one of the weakest in the global economy. In spite of unsatisfactory revenue collection efforts for much of the 1990s, the Government was capable to uphold the fiscal shortage within 4-5 percent of GDP by keeping spending under control. Government expenditure, both current and capital increased rapidly. Therefore, the fiscal scarcity went up to indefensible levels. With declining alternatives to foreign funding of the deficit, the Government had been compelled to finance the shortfall from domestic sources -from banking sector and domestic borrowing. The ensuing monetary adjustment seriously damaged macroeconomic stability. Table 4 : Selected Fiscal Indicators (Percent of Gross Domestic Product) Because of drop of the revenue to GDP ratio to 9 percent in FY1998-99 from 9.3 percent in FY1997-98, caused by flood-induced disruptions, the Government attempted to reverse the declining trend and projected revenue to GDP ratio of 10 percent in the FY1999-00 budget. In spite of establishing a verified revenue mobilization object, no major efforts were made to apply vital fiscal reforms, reduce the tax structure, strengthen tax management, and extend the tax foundation. Moreover, the hindrance in introducing the reshipment assessment scheme, and slothful growth in imports also added to revenue shortfall. Customs duties collection declined by 10 percent in FY1999-00 compared with FY1998-99, and the share of customs duties in National Board of Revenue portion of taxes declined to 28 percent from 32 percent. Nontax revenue collection was also less than projected due mainly to reduced profit and dividend earnings of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). In FY1999-00, losses of nonfinancial SOE s were estimated at Tk31 billion, or 1.3 percent of GDP. Therefore, actual revenue mobilization in FY1999-00 rotated to be considerably below budget projections, at 8.9 percent of GDP. Government expenditure increased to 13.8 percent of GDP in FY1999-00 from 13.3 percent in FY1998-99, because of a rush in the outlay resulting from flood-induced expenditure, particularly the requirement for extra imports of food grains and post flood rehabilitation outlays. The tendency prolonged in FY1999-00 with overall expenses rising to 15 percent of GDP. Though the Government was capable to Keep up current spending at 7.6 percent of GDP (the same percentage as in the previous year), spending under the annual development program (ADP) went up to 6.7 percent of GDP from5.6 percent in FY1998-99. In the FY1999-00 budget, the Governments aim was to reduce expenses to 7.4 percent of GDP. It was a determined aim in view of the coming general election (scheduled for October 2001) when the pressures on t he Government to accommodate increased expenditure is bound to be considerable. Allocation for the ADP in the FY2000-01 budget was 6.5 percent of GDP, 50 percent of which was expected to be financed from domestic resources, and 40 percent of the domestic funding of the ADP would be from bank borrowing. The choice to fund a superior development budget with substantial borrowing from banks had risks to sustain macroeconomic constancy. While 34 percent of the ADP funds have been allocated to sectors that address poverty directly, about 33 percent had been assigned to infrastructure development comprising energy, transport, and communication. Not all ADP projects could be justified on grounds of accelerating the pace of development; several projects had questionable merit. What was more worrying was that some low -priority projects were being financed by high-cost foreign suppliers credits. In FY 1999-00, revenue/GDP ratio was 8.47 percent, which step by step went up to 10.79 percent in FY2005-06. In FY 2007-08 the revenue/GDP more went up to 11.17 percent and the g rowing trend of revenue-GDP ratio further increased to 11.24 percent in FY2008-09. Table 4.1 illustrates tax and non-tax revenue receipts and tax-GDP ratio within the period from FY1999-00 to FY2008-09. From the beginning of the FY2008-09 the revenue objectives of fiscal year came under challenge because of the impact of worldwide financial crisis. The international economy plunged into collapse mainly for noxious credit crisis in the US financial organizations and gigantic falls in prices of commodities like fuel, fertilizer etc. This price drop caused poorer collection of import duties which is the largest source of revenue although the price of commodities favored reduction of high inflation condition. The assortment of import duty in FY 2008-09 fell diminutive of the goals as the import duty is established on the basis of prices of the imported commodities. Study of revenue collection activities for FY2008-09 by categories illustrates that the volume of revenue collection attains from value added tax (VAT).Income tax takes up the second position in the row. Next places are held by import duties, complementary duty, additional taxes and excise duty. On the whole, the part of VAT in the entire revenue collection is progressively increasing. It can be states that, income tax occupies second place above import duties for the second consecutive time. In FY 2008-09, though the entire revenue collection by NBR source fell diminutive of the goals but overall revenue collection stood at TK. 52525.61 crore, which is TK. 5236.49 crore higher than the assortment of the previous fiscal year showing an 11.07 percent increase. In FY 2007-08, total revenue collection placed at TK. 47289.12 crore, which was Tk. 10,069.8 crore or27.06 percent higher than the assortment of the previous year. In FY 2006-07, the total revenue collection under NBR amounted to Tk. 37219.32 crore which was Tk. 3,216.89 crore or 9.46 percent higher than that of the previous year. Item-wise tax collection from FY2006-07 to FY2008-09 is shown in Table 4.2. Management of public expenditure is the most vital part for the fiscal management of the government. The major aims of fiscal management are to uphold social safety net activities, inspire expenditure in productive level, practice austerity in public expenditure and controls over unproductive expenses. Reducing poverty through improving the standards of living of the generals, building physical infrastructure and developing human resources are the key features of large public outlays in every year. Total public expenditure, development expenditure and expenditure/GDP ratio for FY 2008-09 and during the last decade are shown in Table 4.3. Investigation of entire non-development expenditure illustrates that in FY 2003-04, expenditure on pay and allowances was 27.4 percent of total non-development expenses. In FY 2004-05 and FY 2005-06 these percentage decreased to 25.3 and 27.6 respectively, but went up to 28.5 percent in FY 2006-07 and again decreased to 23.6 percent in FY 2008-09. In FY 2003-04, the spending on subsidy and current transfer accounted for 28.4 percent of entire non-development expenses. In FY 2004-05, FY 2005-06, FY 2006-07 and FY 2008-09 the spending on subsidy and current transfer accounted for 30.1, 29.1, 31.4 and 40.5 percent of entire non-development expenses correspondingly. In FY 2004-05, FY 2005-06, FY2006-07 and FY 2008-09 the shares of interest payments on foreign and domestic credits in total non-development cost were 18.8, 19.8, 20.2 and 20.8 percent respectively. The average genuine cost against the adjusted allotment of ADP was around 90 percent during the time from 1999-00 to 2005-06 (Table 4.4). In FY2006-07 and FY 2007-08, the utilization of ADP is about 83 and 82 percent correspondingly. In FY 2008-09 the short-term expenditure records 85.7 percent utilization of revised allotment. The growing tendency of distribution and expenditure in socio-economic and physical infrastructure segments all the way through ADP is constant with the twin objectives of the government- attaining higher growth and diminishing poverty. ADP expenditure and its composition by key sectors are shown in Table 4.5. Budget is organized in line with the national plans and policies taken up for economic development, poverty diminution and social growth. There arises a budget shortage occurring from a space between the government revenue and expenditure, where expenditure becomes more important than the revenue income. The succeeding governments are taking policies to control resources and shifts earnings at an increased rate to the poor people of the country since over 40 percent of population live beneath poverty line. Though, this enhances budget shortage little further, but it generates purchasing power of a vast population that finally propel growth by escalating aggregate demand. It also facilitates a huge portion of the population to keep minimum livelihood. The tendency of budget shortage in Bangladesh obviously shows that shortage remains under 5 percent of GDP except for those years when there were natural catastrophies. Table 4.6 below represents data on budget shortage and the form of i ts financing throughout the time period from FY1999-00 to FY2008-09. At present the debit obligation of the government is at a reasonable stage. Financing throughout grant and credit from outer sources is progressively tightening because of shifting in the policies of contributors. This, prompted the government to take a variety of restructuring initiatives and to adopt inspirational measures to mobilize resources from domestic sources together with from external sources. In principle, the government has a preferences on concessional foreign borrowing to domestic borrowing due to the poorer outlays of foreign borrowing and longer reimbursement time period. Findings Bangladesh is a third worlds developing country. At present it is going through a financial crisis. To analyze any countrys financial condition the key factor is to investigate its fiscal policy and management as fiscal policy has a great impact on the countrys development procedure. In our term paper we have discussed the fiscal condition of Bangladesh in brief. Financing of regular insufficiency, generally undertaken through borrowings from abroad, from Bangladesh Bank, and from scheduled banks, has become a central characteristic of the fiscal policy of the country. Opportunity of borrowing from the public by the government for financing budget deficiency is very limited in the country as investments capability of the people is very low. Therefore, the opportunity of non-inflationary financing of budget shortfall does not exist here. Availability of foreign borrowing depends on the international liquidity situation and the prevailing circumstances in the international capital market, which is always uncertain and unpredictable for a country like Bangladesh. Here, some major key findings which has a great influence on Bangladeshi economy that we noted out from the analysis section are added : # Introduction of Value Added Tax (VAT) in early 1990s is one of the key fiscal reforms to develop a effective fiscal administration. # The revenue tax to GDP ratio rose from 5.9 percent in FY1991 to 7.3 percent in FY1993 # Because of drop of the revenue to GDP ratio to 9 percent in FY1998-99 from 9.3 percent in FY1997-98, caused by flood-induced disruptions, the Government attempted to reverse the declining trend and projected revenue to GDP ratio of 10 percent in the FY1999-00 budget # Customs duties collection declined by 10 percent in FY1999-00 compared with FY1998-99, and the share of customs duties in National Board of Revenue portion of taxes declined to 28 percent from 32 percent # In FY1999-00, losses of nonfinancial SOEs were estimated at Tk31 billion, or 1.3 percent of GDP. Therefore, actual revenue mobilization in FY1999-00 rotated to be considerably below budget projections, at 8.9 percent of GDP # In FY1998-99 there had a rush in the outlay resulting from flood-induced expenditure, particularly the requirement for extra imports of food grains and post flood rehabilitation expenses # In the FY1999-00 budget, the Governments aim was to reduce expenses to 7.4 percent of GDP. It was a determined aim in view of the coming general election (scheduled for October 2001) when the pressures on the Government to accommodate increased expenditure is bound to be considerable. # In FY 1999-00revenue/GDP ratio was 8.47 percent, which step by step went up to 10.79 percent in FY2005-06. In FY 2007-08 the revenue/GDP more went up to 11.17 percent and the growing trend of revenue-GDP ratio further increased to 11.24 percent in FY2008-09. # From the beginning of the FY2008-09 the revenue objectives of fiscal year came under challenge because of the impact of worldwide financial crisis. # In FY 2008-09, though the entire revenue collection by NBR source fell diminutive of the goals but overall revenue collection stood at TK. 52525.61 crore, which is TK. 5236.49 crore higher than the assortment of the previous fiscal year showing an 11.07 percent increase. In FY 2007-08, total revenue collection placed at TK. 47289.12 crore, which was Tk. 10,069.8 crore or27.06 percent higher than the assortment of the previous year. In FY 2006-07, the total revenue collection under NBR amounted to Tk. 37219.32 crore which was Tk. 3,216.89 crore or 9.46 percent higher than that of the previous year. Item-wise tax collection from FY2006-07 to FY2008-09 # The average genuine cost against the adjusted allotment of ADP was around 90 percent during the time from 1999-00 to 2005-06. In FY2006-07 and FY 2007-08, the utilization of ADP is about 83 and 82 percent correspondingly. In FY 2008-09 the short-term expenditure records 85.7 percent utilization of revised allotment. # The tendency of budget shortage in Bangladesh obviously shows that shortage remains under 5 percent of GDP except for those years when there were natural catastrophes. The findings

The Homeless in Our Community Essay -- Homelessness In Our Community,

Table of Contents Literature Review — 3 Methodology — 5 Findings — 6 Summary — 8 Works Cited/Works Used — 9 Appendix: Survey Form — 11 LITERATURE REVIEW In this information behavior study, our group examines the everyday information resources, needs, and behaviors of the homeless. Literature research has led us to many key resources. Important literature on our topic includes Everyday Information Needs and Information Sources of Homeless Parents, The Homeless and Information Needs and Services, and Are the economically poor information poor? Does the digital divide affect the homeless and access to information? by Julie Hersberger, and The Impoverished LifeWorld of Outsiders and Framing Social Life in Theory and Research by Elfreda Chatman. The fundamental concepts in the literature show that a study must have a definition of homelessness and information poverty, address the everyday information needs and services of the homeless, identify misconceptions about how the homeless view and use information, and discuss information behaviors and barriers for the homeless. The homeless are a growing population in the United States. As the gap between the wealthy and poor increases, more people find themselves overwhelmed and displaced without a permanent residence, financial stability, or social networks, such as family, friends, and/or public assistance. Generally, homelessness in America is a result of unaffordable housing, family fragmentation, domestic violence, mental illness, health problems, addictions, unemployment, or a combination of several of these issues1 (Hersberger, 2001, p. 119). Research has concluded that homeless â€Å"people in their everyday lives are assessing their information needs in... ....What kinds of everyday information are you interested in encountering here? 23.How useful is what you learn at this place 1) Not Applicable 2) Not Useful 3) Somewhat Useful 4) Very Useful 5) Can’t Do Without 24. Is the information you encounter mostly trivial or good for making important or big decisions? 1) Trivial 2) Big Decision 3) Small Decision 4) All 5) Other 15 25.What would make it easier for you and others to share useful information at this place? 26.What are the drawbacks to getting information at this place? 27.How important is this place as a means to get help for information about everyday life? 1) Most important 2) Somewhat important 3) Not very important 4) Not important 28. What is your next best place for information? 29. Is there anything you’d like to add about what you’ve just told me? 30. Gender 31.Age 32.THANK YOU!

The Character of Scarlet in Gone With the Wind Essay -- Gone With the

The Character of Scarlet in Gone With the Wind  Ã‚     "My Dear, I don't give a damn," (718) Rhett Butler says this infamous quote to Scarlet O'Hara at the end of Gone With the Wind (1934), when the woman has finally poured her soul to him. The novel Gone with the Wind (1934) by Margaret Mitchell is a classic about the hard times suffered during and after the Civil War. Scarlet lives in the Confederacy and everyone there is for fighting for his or her noble Cause. The young southern belle Scarlet O'Hara is forced to do things she never thought a girl of her class and nature would have to do. All throughout the novel, she is faced with serious problems. Scarlet plainly states, I'll not think of that today, I'll think of it tomorrow, for tomorrow is another day, which of course she never does. It is this thought however, that makes her character stay strong, although sometimes living in a daydream. Without telling herself this, Scarlet would have broken down in the very beginning after the war had started. Scarlet lives for the future and not the past. It's this about her that makes her character admirable and noble At first the reader would think Scarlet's character is snobbish and helpless. Through her determination, she forces others to change their opinion of her. In the beginning, she is a young, beautiful sixteen -year old, with a seventeen-inch waist, the smallest in the county. At parties, she never has less than a dozen young men surrounding her, all of whom she never lets know whom she truly loves. The other girls find Scarlet heartless, the way she leads all those boys on, but Scarlet pays no mind to them. She knows they are just bitter with jealousy. She does truly love Ashley Wilkes, but he is to announce his enga... ...d a cause of her own. While many characters in the book fought and died for the great Cause, she cared more about her own. Scarlet had to care for Tara and her family. Although many see her as repulsive, by looking at her acts, she made herself strong with words. The once young and carefree girl was forced to marry for money, not for love, twice. When Scarlet finally let her only true love in life, Rhett Butler, know how she felt about him, she realizes all too late how horrid she's acted, he finally puts Scarlet in her place by stating "My dear, I don't give a damn." At these words, Scarlet still does not break down. After all she has been through she knows what to do. She tells her self that tomorrow is another day, and tomorrow she will get Rhett back.   Works Cited Mitchell, Margaret. Gone With the Wind. NewYork: The Macmillan Company,1994      

War on Drugs Essays -- Illegal Drugs Narcotics essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout history drugs have been nothing but a social problem, a burden per say. From Edgar Allen Poe smoking opium in an attempt to make his poetry more creative, to Vietnam soldiers coming back from the war addicted to heroin. Narcotics was not a serious issue at the time, only a small hand full of people were actually doing the drugs, and they were just simply looked down upon. It was not until the late nineteen sixties when recreational drug use became fashionable among young, white, middle class American citizens, that the United States Government â€Å"put it’s foot down†. (pbs.com) They started slowly ,developing agencies like the (BNDD) Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, which was founded in 1968 by the Linden Johnson administration. Congress also started passing laws like the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act in 1970.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was not until June 17, 1971 when the war on drugs truly began. At a press conference in the White House, President Richard J. Nixon officially declared war on drugs. He stated, â€Å"drug abuse is public enemy, number one in the United States.† He also announced the creation of (SAODAP) Special Action Office for Drug Abuse Prevention. Three years later on August 9, 1974, President Nixon resigns, but not before founding one the greatest assets for the war on drugs, the (DEA) Drug Enforcement Agency. Established in July of 1973, this â€Å"super agency† (pbs.com) consisted of agents from the CIA, Customs and ODALE. This agency was designed to handle all aspects of the drug problem in America and would be headed Myles Ambrose.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the first years of the program the DEA was established their main focus was to stop the flow of marijuana from Mexico to America. Around the mid seventies the â€Å"enemy† face began to change, the enemy was now cocaine and it was coming from the country of Colombia. On November 22, 1975 the Colombian police seized over 600 kilos of cocaine from a small plane at the Cali Airport. The plane was believed to be headed to Miami, Florida. The amount of cocaine that was seized that day was the largest cocaine bust to date.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The DEA, along with other agencies, are still fighting cocaine and many other drugs to this day. One of the reasons the war on drugs is lasting so long is because of the cost; the war on drugs is a very expense war. In the past, the government has spent arou... ...m heroin addiction. Psychiatrist Dr. Robert DuPont is a pioneer doctor in drug abuse treatment, he perfumed studies in Washington D.C. in 1969 of heroin addicts, and then convinced the mayor to allow him to provide methadone to the heroin addicts this resulted in the city’s crime rate dropping.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The cost of addiction can be devastating to the person and the person’s family. People trade in their cars; clothing and shelter just to get a fix for their addiction. The cost of rehabilitation is outrageous, unless you are attending a free one it can cost up to 1000 dollars a weak.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many programs out in the public today for soul purpose of keeping people clean, off drugs. Programs such as Betty Ford, D.A.R.E, and many more are set up to keep people from drug abuse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the end the war on drugs is not a war to be won or lost, it’s with in the people, rather if they want to do drugs or not. The importation of illicit substances into the United States is an impossibility. There’s over 2,000 miles of border along the Mexican border and the coastal areas, thousands of miles; there is no possible way to stop the importation of drugs into this country.

Media Law Case Studies Essay

1. Whether, as a Member of Parliament (MP), the Accused’s right of free speech in Parliament, given by sections 3 and 8 of the Houses of Parliament (Privileges and Powers) Ordinance [No. 15 of] 1952 and Article 63(2) of the 1957 Federal Constitution, has been validly limited by the subsequent amendment made to Article 63 with the addition of Clause (4) by the Constitution (Amendment) Act. 1971 (Act A30). 2. Whether the Accused’s right of free speech in Parliament is part of the Constitution’s basic structure or a fundamental rule of natural justice, thus rendering any supposed amendment of the Constitution seeking to limit such right is void and of no effect. 3. Whether the demand for closure of Chinese and Tamil schools in the process of implementing the national language can be legally and constitutionally treated as questioning Article 152(1) and thus, bringing into operation section 3(1) (f) of the Sedition Act 1948 (Revised 1969), despite there not being a demand for the abolition of prohibition of the teaching or learning of such languages. Reasoning 1. While Sections 3 and 8 of the Houses of Parliament (Privileges and Powers) Ordinance 1952 as well as Article 63(2) of the Constitution grants an MP freedom of speech in Parliament without being held liable to be prosecuted or questioned in court, the subsequent addition of Clause 4 in Article 63 states that Clause 2 is not applicable to any person who has committed an offence under Article 10(4) or the Sedition Act 1948. Noting that the Accused is charged via the Sedition Act, it is clear that the Accused’s right of free speech in Parliament is limited by Clause 4 of Article 63. 2. The Accused’s right of free speech in Parliament is not instrumental in forming the basic structure of the constitution. Thus, it was deemed  unnecessary to decide whether or not any amendments made to said Article will destroy the Constitution’s basic structure. In addition, the Accused’s right of free speech is not part of the fundamental rule of natural justice. Therefore, the amendments made to Article 63 – the addition of Clause (4) limiting MPs’ right of free speech in Parliament – are valid. 3. It was decided that it would be premature and speculative to answer this question at the present stage. The answer is deemed to be bound up with uncertain facts of the case and any proceedings made would be based on assumptions. Counsel was advised to forward the submission prepared to the trial Judge, of whom the case was further referred to. Held The case was accordingly directed to the learned trial Judge for continuation and disposal in accordance with the aforementioned judgment and otherwise according to law. Title and Citation Public Prosecutor v. Param Cumaraswamy [1986] 1 MLJ 518 Facts The accused, Vice President of the Bar Council Param Cumaraswamy, was charged for committing an offence under Section 4(1)(b) of the Sedition Act 1948 (Revised 1969) for uttering seditious words during a press conference at the office of the Selangor and Federal Territory Bar Committee on 24 July 1985. The accused was making an open appeal to the Pardons Board to reconsider the petition of Sim Kie Chon, who was charged under the Internal Security Act for possessing an unlicensed forearm, for the commutation of his death sentence. Issues 1. Whether the words uttered by Cumaraswamy can be considered seditious under Section 3 of the Sedition Act. 2. Whether the statement made by Cumaraswamy incited feelings of ill-will and hostility between the different classes of the Malaysian population under Section 3(1)(e) of the Sedition Act. 3. Whether the statement made by Cumaraswamy incited hatred or contempt or excited disaffection against the Authority under Section 3(1)(a). Reasoning 1. Uttered words can only be considered seditious if they achieve one or more of the instruments specified in Section 3(1) of the Sedition Act. Section 3(1)(d) of the Sedition Act 1948 states that for uttered words to be considered seditious, it must be capable of raising discontent or disaffection amongst the people of Malaysia. The press statement was an open appeal to the Pardons Board urging them to exercise their powers uniformly so that the people would not be made to feel that the Board was discriminatory. It was agreed by the Court that the words which were used were unlikely to create discontent or disaffection neither among the people nor against the Authority i.e. Yang di-Pertuan Agong, any other Rulers of State and the government. 2. Section 3(1)(e) of the Sedition Act defines an act with seditious tendency that is capable of promotin feeling of ill-will and hostility between different classes of the population of Malaysia. In one part of the press statement, Cumaraswamy pointed out to the Pardons Board that the people should not be made to feel that the Board was discriminating between â€Å"the poor, the meek and the unfortunate† and â€Å"the rich, the powerful and the influential†. The court agreed that instead of trying to promote ill-will and hostility between the different classes of the population, Cumaraswamy was in fact urging the Board not to create the feeling or impression among the population that the Board was discriminating between the different classes. 3. Section 3(1)(a) stated that a ‘seditious tendency’ is a tendency to bring into hatred or contempt or to excite disaffection against any Ruler or against any Government. It should be noted that Cumaraswamy’s appeal was directed at the Pardons Board and not at the Ruler i.e. the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Hence, it is clear that the statement did not carry the tendency to bring upon hatred of disaffection against the Ruler. Held Mr. Cumaraswamy was found not guilty of sedition. He was subsequently acquitted and discharged. Title and Citation Public Prosecutor v. Pung Chen Choon [1994] 1 MLJ 566 Facts The accused, Pung Chen Choon, editor of newspaper The Borneo Mail, was charged of maliciously publishing false news in The Borneo Mail dated 16 July 1990, stating that Benjamin Basintrol, a priest, had been arrested under the Internal Security Act 1960 (ISA), whereas another priest was on the run from the police and several others were understood to be on the ‘wanted’ list. He was charged with an offence under Section 8A(1) of the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 (PPPA). He was prosecuted in the Magistrates’ Court in Kota Kinabalu. A few issues were raised, leading to the case being forwarded to the High Court and subsequently, to the Supreme Court. Issues The following issues of law were presented to the Supreme Court for determination: 1. Whether Section 8A(1) of PPPA, when read with Section 8A(2), restricts the right to freedom of speech and expression granted by Article 10(1)(a) of the Constitution. 2. If so, whether the restriction imposed is one permitted by or under Article 10(2)(a) of the Constitution. 3. Whether Section 8A(1) of PPPA, read with Section 8A(2), is consistent with Article 10(1)(a) and (2)(a) of the Constitution and therefore, valid. 4. Whether Section 8A(2) of PPPA, by presuming that false news by itself is malicious, amounts to pre-censorship and therefore, disregards Article 10(1)(a) and (2) of the Constitution. Reasoning 1. The Malaysian Constitution, unlike the First Amendment to the Constitution of the USA, does not directly addresses freedom of press. However, judicial opinion in India regarding Article 19(1) of the Indian Constitution, which grants all citizens the right to freedom of speech and expression, has established that freedom of press is included within its domain. In regards to that, it is clear that Section 8A(1) of the PPPA does restrict the right to freedom of speech and expression granted by Article 10(1)(a) of the Constitution. 2 & 3. Although not all false news, even if maliciously published, falls within the stated restrictions in Article 10(2)(a), it is possible that the malicious publication of false news could incite acts which jeopardize the internal security of the country, undermine Malaysia’s friendly relations with other countries, lead to disturbance of public  order, and incite the commission of offences. Hence, it can be said that Section 8A of PPPA falls within the orbit of permitted restrictions in Article 10(2)(a) of the Constitution and is constitutionally valid. 4. Section 8A(2) of PPPA is merely a statutory presumption which operates at the trial stage, arising only if the prosecution are able to prove – when prosecuting the accused in court – that the news published is false. Section 8A(2) is, in no way, equated with pre-censorship, which can only take place before publication. Moreover, Section 8A(2) does not restrict freedom of press either directly or indirectly. Hence, the answer to Question 4 is ‘no’. Held The case was forwarded to the magistrate to proceed with the hearing, taking into account the answers to the questions presented, to determine whether the offence charged has been ascertained by the prosecution beyond all reasonable doubt. References Mark Koding v. Public Prosecutor [1982] 2 MLJ 120 Public Prosecutor v. Param Cumaraswamy [1986] 1 MLJ 512 Public Prosecutor v. Param Cumaraswamy (No. 2) [1986] 1 MLJ 518 Public Prosecutor v. Pung Chen Choon [1994] 1 MLJ 566

History Essay Introduction Essay

STEP 1: Focusing your topic: In writing a research essay for history, you should first formulate an idea (a working thesis) about the focus of your research. This gives you a starting point to find source information. The thesis statement must address your assignment. Use keywords from your assignment to help formulate a working thesis statement. STEP 2: Research: Librarians are trained to assist you with finding appropriate sources, but keep in mind there are some types of sources that are NOT appropriate to use for a college level essay. These include sources like encyclopedias (including Wikipedia), textbooks, Answers.com, etc. (These are places to start if you have no information about the topic, but they are not reliable sources of research info). Evaluate any source (especially Internet sources) you plan to use in your essay in terms of the following: Accuracy–(Is the information in the source correct? Does it generally match up with information you’ve found in other sources on the same topic?) Authority–(Who claims responsibility for the information in the source? You would not use a paper written by a 6th grader as a source for a college level class) Objectivity—(Is the author objective or biased? Is there an agenda?) Currency–(Is the information up to date? For example, you wouldn’t want to use a book published in 1959 if you were writing an essay about how students use computers to do research) Coverage—(Is balanced information provided, or is the coverage one-sided or incomplete?) Use sources that contain information that will support the thesis statement of your essay. Don’t use sources that you do not understand. STEP 3: Writing the essay: An academic research essay contains the following elements: Introduction—This introduces the reader to the topic and makes a specific claim (the thesis statement) about the topic. This claim is what the body, or main part, of your essay will support and explain. Argument and Documentation: Often called the body of the essay. This should be several paragraphs/pages long and contains the topic sentences that provide supporting points for your thesis statement, examples from sources that illustrate your supporting points, and explanations of HOW the examples illustrate your supporting points. Conclusion: Wraps up your essay and is the appropriate place to include your opinions about the topic. ↠ A word about transitions: Use them. You should create smooth transitions between paragraphs. This is often done by repeating keywords from the thesis and/or by introducing the topic of the following paragraph in the last sentence of the preceding paragraph. Transitional terms such as â€Å"In addition,† Similarly,† and â€Å"However† also help create smooth transitions. Repetition of keywords and ideas creates transitions. 02/08 The parts of a history research essay: Introduction: This section of the essay introduces the reader to the topic and to your particular historical take on the topic. Some historians like to â€Å"set the scene† with an anecdote that illustrates something important or interesting, or which catches the interest of the reader and focuses it on the essay’s topic. Others prefer to state vital data and background to the topic (one example of this would be a biographical essay which starts with information about when and where a person was born, etc.) Many find it easier to write the introduction after they have written the body of the essay. Statement of Thesis: This commonly appears within the introduction, usually as the last sentence of the first paragraph. Your thesis should be clear and straightforward. If you cannot state your thesis statement succinctly, you may need to think more carefully about what you are trying to argue in your essay and focus your topic more clearly. Argument and Documentation: The bulk of your research essay will be your support of the thesis statement from your introductory paragraph. A â€Å"format† to use for supporting your thesis might be as follows: MAKE A POINT, in your own words, that supports your thesis idea. This is the topic sentence of a paragraph. PROVIDE AN EXAMPLE from a source. This might be done in the form of a quote (using the exact words the source uses and quotation marks– ex. â€Å"quote†) or a paraphrase (restating the idea in your own words—no quotation marks). Whether you quote or paraphrase, you need to CITE any information you obtain from a source, and you do this by inserting a parenthetical note that includes the author of the source’s last name and the page number(s) where the information appeared in the source. For MLA format, the information that goes into the parenthetical note—ex. (Smith 64)—is the first bit of information about that source that your reader will see on your Works Cited page, so it is usually the author’s last name. If you do not have an author’s name, use keywords from the title—ex. The title of the article is â€Å"Joan of Arc: Heroine or Heretic.† Your citation might be (â€Å"Joan† 86). If there are no page numbers, as is often the case with Internet sources, the same citation would be (â€Å"Joan†). [pic]An important part of developing your research writing is to EXPLAIN how the EXAMPLE you have used makes your POINT. This explanation is written in your own words and should clearly indicate how you see the example conveying the point/conclusion you’ve reached about the topic. Conclusion: The conclusion wraps up your essay and serves as an appropriate place to offer your own opinion, apply the research to present-day issues, or state the historic significance of the topic. Visit The Learning Center website at http://www.tridenttech.edu/664_2970.htm for links to handouts on using MLA format, using thesis statements and topic sentences, and avoiding plagiarism.

Albert Camus’ novel, The Stranger Essay

Albert Camus’ novel, The Stranger, strongly resembles the concepts of absurdism, the efforts of humanity to find meaning in the universe all fail because no such meaning exists. Life just has no meaning or purpose. Camus accepts one inevitable thing, death. The idea that everyone will meet death, then everyone’s life is equally meaningless. The inability to find meaning in life is not logical impossible but rather humanly impossible. The title, The Stranger, is significant towards Meursault’s character in the book because he sees himself as a â€Å"stranger† in the world. It seems to be a nickname for him. He only shares certain things and keeps everyone at a distance. Society does not appreciate him like their own; he does not conform to their ideas and rules. The title is also a reflection of the author because when he wrote the book, no one truly knew the philosophical views of the absurd. The idea that things sometimes happen for no reason, and that occasions sometimes have no meaning to anything in life is disruptive and threatening to society. Meursault seems to be the only one who thinks he has the freedom to do whatever he wants and therefore he does not preoccupy himself with what society has set as the norm. An interesting relationship is between Maman and Meursault. In the beginning of the novel, Maman passed away and Meursault seemed to show no emotions towards her death. He accepted that she died and moved on. He knew that putting her in the Morengo Home was the best for her. Meursault tells his boss that is not his fault that Maman died. Throughout the novel, he contemplates memories of her and what he knew about her. When he is sentenced to a horrible fate, he understands his mother more than ever. Meursault knows why she wanted to be around people who cared and loved her when she died. He realizes that she understood what life was really like similar to him. At the end, he knows that she left this world just like he is going too, meaningless and purposeless. Albert Camus’ novel, The Stranger, strongly resembles the concepts of absurdism, the efforts of humanity to find meaning in the universe all fail because no such meaning exists. Life just has no meaning or purpose. Camus accepts one inevitable thing, death. The idea that everyone will meet death, then everyone’s life is equally meaningless. The inability to find meaning in life is not logical impossible but rather humanly impossible. The title, The Stranger, is significant towards Meursault’s character in the book because he sees himself as a â€Å"stranger† in the world. It seems to be a nickname for him. He only shares certain things and keeps everyone at a distance. Society does not appreciate him like their own; he does not conform to their ideas and rules. The title is also a reflection of the author because when he wrote the book, no one truly knew the philosophical views of the absurd. The idea that things sometimes happen for no reason, and that occasions sometimes have no meaning to anything in life is disruptive and threatening to society. Meursault seems to be the only one who thinks he has the freedom to do whatever he wants and therefore he does not preoccupy himself with what society has set as the norm. An interesting relationship is between Maman and Meursault. In the beginning of the novel, Maman passed away and Meursault seemed to show no emotions towards her death. He accepted that she died and moved on. He knew that putting her in the Morengo Home was the best for her. Meursault tells his boss that is not his fault that Maman died. Throughout the novel, he contemplates memories of her and what he knew about her. When he is sentenced to a horrible fate, he understands his mother more than ever. Meursault knows why she wanted to be around people who cared and loved her when she died. He realizes that she understood what life was really like similar to him. At the end, he knows that she left this world just like he is going too, meaningless and purposeless.